1. Introduction
The word History comes from the Greek term Historia, meaning inquiry or exploration. History is the scientific study of the past based on evidence.
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History reconstructs the past through written records.
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Archaeology studies the past through material remains.
Although both disciplines share the same objective, they employ different methods, and therefore, rely on different sources.
2. Archaeological Sources
Archaeological sources provide direct material evidence about past societies. The main categories are Inscriptions, Coins, Monuments & Sculptures, and Excavated Material.
2.1 Inscriptions
📌 Definition:
An inscription is a permanent writing engraved on stone, metal, or other durable surfaces.
Types of Inscriptions:
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Eulogies (Prashastis): Glorify rulers and their achievements.
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Example: Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta.
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Edicts (Royal Orders): Record official proclamations or commands.
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Example: Ashoka’s Edicts.
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Land Grants (Charters): Record donations of land, often on copper plates.
🖊️ Special Studies:
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Study of inscriptions → Epigraphy
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Study of ancient scripts → Paleography
2.2 Coins
📌 Definition:
Coins reveal valuable information about the political authority, economy, religion, and culture of a period.
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Earliest coins: Punch-marked coins (6th century BCE) made of silver and copper.
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Gold coins: Introduced by foreign rulers in post-Mauryan India.
🖊️ Special Study: Numismatics – the study of coins.
2.3 Monuments and Sculptures
Monuments and sculptures illustrate the art, architecture, religious practices, and social life of their time.
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Example: The Taj Mahal reflects Mughal grandeur.
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Example: Sculptures at the Ramappa Temple (Kakatiya dynasty) depict social customs such as the mangalsutra.
🖊️ Special Study: Iconography – the study of images and sculptures.
2.4 Excavated Material Remains
Excavations bring to light everyday objects such as pottery, grains, ornaments, weapons, textiles, and house remains. These provide first-hand evidence of life in ancient times.
2.5 Scientific Dating Methods
To determine the age of artifacts, archaeologists use scientific techniques.
| Method | Use / Example |
|---|---|
| Radiocarbon Dating (C-14) | Dates organic remains like wood, bones, charcoal. Discovered by Willard Libby (1949). |
| Potassium–Argon Dating | Determines the age of volcanic rocks. |
| Uranium–Lead Dating | Dates rocks millions of years old. |
| Dendrochronology | Uses tree-rings to establish age. |
| Thermoluminescence Dating | Dates pottery, bricks, and objects last exposed to heat. |
3. Historical / Literary Sources
Literary sources complement archaeology. They are of two types: Indigenous texts and Foreign accounts.
3.1 Indigenous Texts
Texts written by Indians within the subcontinent:
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Religious Texts: Sacred scriptures of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.
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Example: Rigveda (c. 1500–1000 BCE), the earliest Indian text.
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Secular Texts: Works not related to religion.
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Example: Ashtadhyayi by Panini (5th century BCE).
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3.2 Foreign Accounts
Foreign travelers, pilgrims, and envoys provided external perspectives on Indian society, often with less bias than indigenous records.
| Scholar / Traveler | Work | Information |
|---|---|---|
| Megasthenes (Greek) | Indica | Mauryan polity and society |
| Pliny (Latin) | Natural History | Indo–Roman trade |
| Xuanzang (Chinese) | Si-Yu-Ki | Harshavardhana’s reign (7th century CE) |
| Divyavadana (Tibetan Buddhist text) | – | Ashoka’s reign |
| Sri Lankan Chronicles | Mahavamsa, Dipavamsa, Culavamsa | Mauryan history |
| Arab Travelers | Various works | Medieval India’s economy and society |
📌 Note: Compared with indigenous texts, foreign accounts often provide more objective details, especially about the lives of ordinary people.
4. Summary
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History and Archaeology are complementary disciplines.
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Archaeological Sources (inscriptions, coins, monuments, excavations, dating methods) provide material evidence.
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Literary Sources (indigenous and foreign texts) provide written evidence.
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Together, they enable a comprehensive reconstruction of India’s past.