The word History originates from the Greek word Historia, which means research or inquiry. The discipline that investigates and studies the past is called History. Along with history, Archaeology also studies the past. Although both subjects aim at reconstructing the past, they follow different methods to achieve it. History studies the past through written records, while archaeology studies it through material remains. Thus, their sources differ.
Archaeological Sources
Archaeologists use different sources to reconstruct the past. Among them, inscriptions, coins, monuments, sculptures, and excavated material remains are most important.
Inscriptions
A permanent writing engraved on a hard surface is called an inscription. Based on the information they contain, inscriptions are classified into three types:
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Eulogies (Prashastis): These praise the achievements and greatness of kings. Examples include Samudragupta’s Allahabad Inscription, Gautamiputra Satakarni’s Nasik Inscription, and Pulakesin II’s Aihole Inscription.
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Edicts (Royal Orders): These are inscriptions issued by a king to announce his orders and commands. All inscriptions of Ashoka are edicts.
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Land Charters (Donative Inscriptions): Unlike prashastis and edicts, which were issued only by kings, land charters were issued by both kings and private individuals. These recorded land grants given to priests or religious institutions. Since these were usually written on copper plates, they are also called copper plate inscriptions.
The earliest inscriptions in India are the pictographic inscriptions on seals of the Indus Valley Civilization. However, they remain undeciphered. The earliest decipherable inscriptions are those of Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE, mostly in Prakrit language and Brahmi script. Later Sanskrit inscriptions too were written in Brahmi.
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The branch of study that deals with inscriptions is called Epigraphy.
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The study of ancient scripts in inscriptions is called Paleography.
Coins
Coins minted in a particular period reveal political, economic, social, and religious aspects of that era.
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The earliest coins in India were Punch-marked Coins of the 6th century BCE, made of silver and copper.
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These coins carried one or more symbols but no writing, so the rulers who issued them remain unknown.
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In post-Mauryan times, foreign rulers who ruled India introduced gold coins.
The branch of archaeology that studies coins is called Numismatics.
Monuments and Sculptures
Ancient monuments and sculptures reveal much about the political, economic, social, and religious life of their times.
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The Taj Mahal reflects the luxurious life of Mughal emperors.
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The sculptures of the Ramappa Temple of the Kakatiya period give insights into social customs, such as married women wearing the mangalsutra.
The branch that studies ancient art and iconography is called Iconography.
Excavated Material Remains
Objects unearthed through excavations—such as pottery, grains, textiles, weapons, tools, ornaments, and remains of houses—help archaeologists understand the conditions of past societies.
Scientific Methods of Dating Ancient Objects
Archaeologists use various scientific methods to determine the age of excavated remains. These methods not only date the objects but also help determine the age of the excavation site. Some major dating methods are:
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Radio-Carbon Dating (C-14): Used for dating organic remains. Discovered in 1949 by Willard Libby (University of Chicago). C-14 decays at a fixed rate, and its half-life is 5568 years. Measuring the remaining C-14 helps determine the age.
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Potassium-Argon Dating: Used to determine the age of rocks, especially in volcanic regions.
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Uranium-Lead Dating: Used to date rocks formed millions of years ago.
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Dendrochronology (Tree-Ring Dating): Determines the age of ancient trees by studying tree rings.
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Thermoluminescence Dating: Used to date objects like baked bricks, pottery, and other items exposed to fire.
Historical / Literary Sources
Historians also study the past through literary sources. These are broadly classified into Indigenous Texts and Foreign Texts.
Indigenous Texts
These are works written by Indians within India. They are divided into two categories:
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Religious Texts: Sacred texts of different religions, such as the Vedic/Hindu texts, Jain texts, and Buddhist texts. The Rigveda (1500–1000 BCE) is considered the earliest Indian text.
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Secular Texts: Texts not related to religion. The earliest example is Ashtadhyayi, a grammar text written by Panini in the 5th century BCE.
Foreign Texts
From ancient times, many foreigners visited India and recorded valuable information. They came as invaders, envoys, pilgrims, traders, and travelers, and described what they saw. Their accounts are reliable sources, often less biased than indigenous texts, and give vivid descriptions of common people’s life.
Some important foreign texts include:
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Greek Accounts: Indica by Megasthenes, which describes the Mauryan Empire.
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Latin Accounts: Natural History by Pliny, which provides details about Indo-Roman trade.
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Chinese Accounts: Si-Yu-Ki by Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang), which describes North India during Harshavardhana’s reign in the 7th century CE.
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Tibetan Accounts: Divyavadana, a Buddhist text, which provides information about Ashoka.
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Sri Lankan Accounts: Mahavamsa, Dipavamsa, and Culavamsa, Buddhist chronicles that describe the Mauryas.
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Arabic Accounts: Several Arab travelers of the medieval period described India and provided valuable information.
Note: Compared to indigenous texts, foreign accounts are often more reliable as they tend to have less bias and describe the life of common people more vividly.