Prehistory refers to the period of human history before the invention of writing, when no written records were available. The study of this era depends on archaeological evidence such as stone tools, pottery, cave paintings, bones, and excavated sites.
In India, prehistoric cultures are divided into four stages: Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age), Neolithic (New Stone Age), and Chalcolithic (Copper-Stone Age). Each stage marks important developments in human life—such as hunting and gathering, animal domestication, agriculture, permanent settlements, and the use of metals.
The discovery of prehistoric sites like Bhimbetka rock shelters provides valuable information about the lifestyle, economy, and cultural practices of early humans. Prehistoric studies thus help us understand how human civilization gradually developed in the Indian subcontinent.
Prehistoric Cultures
Based on writing, ancient history is divided into three ages:
- Prehistoric Age: The period without writing, when history cannot be studied, is called the Prehistoric Age.
2. Proto-historic Age: The period when writing existed but cannot be deciphered.
( Note: To study the Prehistoric and Proto-historic ages, we rely on archaeology.)
3 Historic Age: The period when history can be studied through decipherable writing.
The Prehistoric Age began with the origin of humankind and continued until the use of writing. In India, it is difficult to determine the exact period of human origin. Evidence suggests that the earliest humans lived in the Bori caves of Maharashtra about 1.4 million years ago. It is also believed that the earliest humans migrated from Africa.
The Four Major Prehistoric Cultures
1. Paleolithic Culture (From the beginning to 10,000 BCE)
The first Paleolithic site was discovered by Robert Bruce Foote in 1863 at Pallavaram near Chennai, Tamil Nadu. Large numbers of Paleolithic tools have been unearthed in the Son Valley (Punjab), Narmada Valley (Madhya Pradesh), Belan Valley (Uttar Pradesh), and many regions of South India.
Note: The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) was founded in 1861 by the British. Its first Director General was Alexander Cunningham, known as the Father of Indian Archaeology. Later, the ASI was neglected until Lord Curzon revived it in 1904 and appointed Sir John Marshall as Director General.
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Paleolithic humans made tools from quartzite stone, such as hand axes, flakes, blades, choppers, and cleavers.
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They belonged to species earlier than Homo sapiens. Fossils of Ramapithecus were found in the Shivalik region and of Neanderthal man in the Narmada Valley. By the end of the Paleolithic Age (10,000 BCE), Homo sapiens (modern man) appeared. The Latin term Homo sapiens means “wise and intelligent man.”
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The Paleolithic economy was based on hunting and gathering of animals, fruits, nuts, and leaves.
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People lived in small groups (bands) and led a nomadic life.
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This age coincided with the Pleistocene (Ice Age). Extremely cold conditions hindered the growth of flora and fauna. Around 10,000 BCE, the Ice Age ended and the Holocene Age began, creating favorable conditions for life.
2. Mesolithic Culture (9000 – 4000 BCE)
The Mesolithic Age saw many transformations with the emergence of Homo sapiens and the onset of the Holocene Age.
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Artificial house construction began. The earliest houses in India were found at Sarai Nahar Rai (Uttar Pradesh), considered the first man-made dwellings.
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Pottery making also started. The earliest handmade pottery in India was discovered at Chopani Mando (Uttar Pradesh). The potter’s wheel appeared later in the Neolithic Age.
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Animal domestication began. Evidence from Bagor (Rajasthan) and Adamgarh (Madhya Pradesh) shows the rearing of goats, sheep, and cattle.
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Tools were made of quartzite and chert, but they were smaller in size and are called microliths. These were first discovered by Carlyle in the Vindhya region.
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The first signs of tribal conflicts and wars also appeared during this period. Evidence of such conflicts was found at Sarai Nahar Rai.
3. Neolithic Culture (7000 – 1000 BCE)
The term “Neolithic” was first used by Sir John Lubbock. Gordon Childe, in his book What Happened in History, described it as the “Neolithic Revolution”, because revolutionary changes occurred during this time.
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The most significant development was the beginning of agriculture. Humans shifted from food gathering to food production, ending nomadic life and beginning settled villages. This laid the foundation for future civilizations.
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The Neolithic Age began at different times in different regions:
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Northwest India: around 7000 BCE
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Gangetic plains: around 5000 BCE
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Kashmir Valley: around 2500 BCE
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South India: around 2000 BCE
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Northeast India: around 1000 BCE
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Important Neolithic Sites:
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Mehrgarh (7000 BCE, Baluchistan, Pakistan): The earliest Neolithic site in the Indian subcontinent. People grew wheat, barley, and cotton. The world’s first evidence of cotton cultivation was found here. The earliest potter’s wheel in India was also found here. (Excavated by J.F. Jarrige).
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Koldihwa (5000 BCE, Uttar Pradesh): First evidence of rice cultivation in the world.
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Mahagara (5000 BCE, Uttar Pradesh): Barley was extensively cultivated.
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Burzahom (2500 BCE, Kashmir): Houses were built in pit dwellings to protect from extreme cold. Bone tools and evidence of dog burials were also found.
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Chirand (1600 BCE, Bihar): Evidence of wheat, barley, and rice cultivation; snake worship; and bone needles indicating stitching.
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South India (2000 BCE): Millet and pulses were grown. Important sites include Sanganakallu, Piklihal, Brahmagiri, Maski, Tekkalakota (Karnataka); Utnur (Telangana); Nagarjunakonda, Palavayi (Andhra Pradesh); Payyampalli (Tamil Nadu).
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Northeast India (1000 BCE): Agriculture began late due to heavy rainfall and dense forests. Important sites: Daojali Hading, Mehrland (Assam, Meghalaya).
4. Chalcolithic Culture (3000 – 700 BCE)
Humans gradually transitioned from using stone to using metals. The first metal used was copper. In the Chalcolithic period, people used both stone and copper tools.
Important Chalcolithic Cultures in India:
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Ahar Culture (2100 – 1500 BCE, Rajasthan): Copper deposits at Khetri mines were used. Important sites: Gilund, Tambavati, Balathal.
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Malwa Culture (1700 – 1200 BCE, Madhya Pradesh): Important sites: Kayatha, Navdatoli, Maheshwar, Eran. Evidence of Shiva Lingam and bull worship was found.
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Jorwe Culture (1400 – 700 BCE, Maharashtra): Over 200 sites discovered. Important sites: Jorwe, Inamgaon, Chandoli, Daimabad.
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OCP (Ochre Coloured Pottery) Culture (2000 – 1500 BCE, Ganga–Yamuna Doab): People used distinctive ochre-colored pottery and copper hoards. Hence also called the Copper Hoard Culture. Important sites: Gungeria (Madhya Pradesh), Hastinapur (Uttar Pradesh).
5. Prehistoric Rock Paintings
Paintings made by prehistoric humans are found across India. The most important site is Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh), a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Paintings from all prehistoric ages—Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, and Chalcolithic—were found here, with Mesolithic paintings being the most abundant.
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Discovered in 1957–58 by V.S. Wakankar.
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The earliest paintings date back to 10,000 BCE.
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They depict social, economic, and cultural life, including hunting scenes, animals (elephants, tigers, leopards, rhinoceroses, deer, wild buffaloes, wild boars), birds, and fish.
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Scenes of humans hunting animals, animals attacking humans, and group dances of women are found.
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People used bows, arrows, spears, and knives for hunting.
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Some paintings show men riding horses (Chalcolithic period) and collecting honey.
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Colors were made from powdered stones, and remarkably, these paintings have survived thousands of years.
Other rock painting sites:
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Kupgal, Piklihal, Tekkalakota (Karnataka)
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Many sites in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana
6. Impact of Geographical Factors on Prehistoric Cultures
Geography plays a decisive role in shaping history and culture. Rivers, mountains, deserts, seas, rainfall, forests, climate, and soil determine the rise and fall of civilizations (Geographical Determinism).
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During the Paleolithic (Ice Age), severe cold prevented agriculture or animal rearing. People had to depend on hunting and gathering.
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After 10,000 BCE, warming climate enabled the growth of flora and fauna, leading to domestication of animals in the Mesolithic and agriculture in the Neolithic.
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Agriculture began earlier in the west (Indus Valley, 7000 BCE) and later in the east (Gangetic Plains, 5000 BCE; Brahmaputra Valley, 1000 BCE) due to dense forests and heavy rainfall.
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Burzahom (Kashmir) people built pit dwellings to protect against extreme cold.
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Copper deposits in Khetri (Rajasthan) encouraged the flourishing of Chalcolithic cultures there.
Thus, lifestyle, food production, housing, and settlements of prehistoric people were strongly shaped by geography.