The period between 200 BCE and 300 CE is one of the most significant in Indian history. It forms the transitional age between two great empires – the Mauryan Empire and the Gupta Empire. Politically, the era witnessed disunity and uncertainty, yet in non-political fields, remarkable progress was achieved.
Political History
In the Post-Mauryan period, many foreign and indigenous kingdoms arose in India. As a result, political disunity prevailed. After the fall of the Mauryas, several foreign invasions occurred, leading to the establishment of various foreign dynasties. Both foreign and indigenous rulers shared political power in this age.
Foreign Kingdoms
Several regions of India came under the control of foreigners after the Mauryan decline. Tribes from different parts of Central Asia invaded India and established multiple kingdoms. Some of the important foreign dynasties are discussed below:
I. Indo-Greeks / Indo-Bactrians / Yavanas
The Greeks of Bactria (modern northern Afghanistan) established an independent kingdom in north-western India, settled permanently, and gradually assimilated into Indian culture. Having lost their foreign identity, they were called Indo-Greeks. In Indian sources, they are referred to as Yavanas, derived from the Ionian tribe of Greece.
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In the 3rd century BCE, the weakening of the Seleucid Empire allowed Bactria to emerge as an independent kingdom.
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The Bactrian king Demetrius invaded India and conquered north-western territories. After Alexander, Demetrius became the second Greek ruler to invade India.
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Coins issued by Demetrius in Prakrit, Greek, and Kharosthi scripts have been discovered. He appointed his general Menander as governor of the conquered territories. After Demetrius’ assassination in Bactria, Menander declared independence.
Menander (Milinda) ruled between 165–145 BCE and became the most famous Indo-Greek ruler. His capital was Sakala (modern Sialkot in Pakistan), described as a “heaven on earth.”
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Menander embraced Buddhism. He frequently discussed Buddhist philosophy with monk Nagasena. Their dialogues were compiled in the Milindapanha (Questions of Milinda), a Pali text regarded as highly sacred after the Tripitaka.
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The Indo-Greeks introduced innovations in coinage, such as double die-struck coins and the issue of gold coins. On his coins, Menander styled himself as Devavrata and Sudevavrata. The reverse depicted the Buddhist Dharma Chakra.
The Yuga Purana (Gargiya Samhita) mentions that the Yavanas penetrated as far as Pataliputra and that Indian astronomy began with them.
II. Scythians / Shakas
The Scythians, nomadic tribes of Central Asia, entered India through the Bolan Pass and established five independent kingdoms. In Patanjali’s Mahabhashya, they were described as excluded Shudras and purified Shudras.
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Kapisa Kingdom – Established in Afghanistan with Kapisa as the capital.
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Taxila Kingdom – Centered in Taxila (Pakistan). Their coins depicted Buddha, Shiva, and Lakshmi. King Moga bore the title Maharaja Mahatma.
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Mathura Kingdom – Based in Mathura (U.P.). Its founder Ranjuvula bore the title Apratihata Chakra (one with an unconquered wheel).
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Ujjain Kingdom – Ruled by the Kardamaka Shakas in Malwa and Gujarat, with Ujjain as capital. Its greatest ruler Rudradaman (130–150 CE) issued the Junagadh/Girnar Inscription, the first in Sanskrit in India. It mentions the history of Sudarsana Lake, originally built during Chandragupta Maurya’s reign and repaired under Ashoka. Rudradaman rebuilt it after floods. This inscription also records his matrimonial alliance with the Satavahanas and his victories. The Kardamakas ruled for centuries until Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) defeated the last ruler Rudrasimha III, earning the title Shakari (Destroyer of Shakas).
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Deccan Shaka Kingdom (Kshaharata dynasty) – With Mandsaur as its capital. Its founder was Bhumaka, but the greatest ruler was Nahapana. Satavahana king Gautamiputra Satakarni defeated Nahapana, as confirmed by the Nasik inscription and the discovery of 10,000 reissued silver coins in which Satakarni’s name replaced Nahapana’s.
III. Parthians / Pahlavas
The Parthians, originally from northern Iran, broke away from the Seleucid Empire in the 3rd century BCE. They invaded India, overthrew the Shakas, and established a small kingdom in north-western India.
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The most famous ruler was Gondophernes (19–45 CE), mentioned in inscriptions at Takht-i-Bahi (Pakistan), where he was called Guduvhara.
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Coins of Gondophernes were found at Begram (Afghanistan).
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Christian tradition holds that St. Thomas, one of the twelve apostles of Jesus, visited Gondophernes’ court and later traveled to South India, dying at Mylapore (Chennai). His tomb was reportedly seen by Marco Polo in the 13th century CE.
IV. Kushanas
The Kushanas belonged to the Yueh-chi / Tocharian tribe of Central Asia. Originally nomads who raided China, they moved towards India after being blocked by the Great Wall of China built by Shih-Huang-Ti (220 BCE).
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They established an empire stretching from the Oxus River in Central Asia to the Ganga valley.
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Their first capital was Purushapura (Peshawar), later Mathura.
1. Kujula Kadphises (15–64 CE)
Founder of the dynasty. Assumed titles like Dharma-sthita, Saca-dharma-sthita, Maharajadhiraja.
2. Vima Kadphises (64–78 CE)
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Issued gold coins (dinars), the first in India.
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His coins depicted Shiva, Nandi, and Trishula.
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A follower of Shaivism, he assumed the titles Maheshwara and Maharajadhiraja.
3. Kanishka (78 CE onwards)
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The greatest Kushana ruler.
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Issued large quantities of gold and copper coins, depicting both Greek and Indian deities, including Buddha as Sakyamuni.
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Founded the city of Kanishkapura in Kashmir.
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Assumed titles Kaiser and Devaputra, imitating Roman and Chinese emperors.
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A great patron of Mahayana Buddhism. Built a famous stupa at Purushapura, mentioned by Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien.
Scholars in his court:
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Vasumitra – President of the Fourth Buddhist Council; author of Mahavibhasha Shastra.
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Ashvaghosha – Deputy president of the council; wrote plays (Saundarananda, Sariputraprakarana) and poems (Buddhacharita, Vajrasuchi, Gandhistasotra).
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Charaka – Renowned physician; wrote the Charaka Samhita, considered the encyclopedia of Indian medicine.
Kanishka also sent envoys to the Roman Emperor Trajan (110 CE). However, he suffered defeat against Chinese general Pan Chao.