The Mauryan Empire was the first great empire in Indian history. The Mauryas ruled not only India but the entire Indian subcontinent. The expansion that began during the Haryanka, Shishunaga, and Nanda dynasties reached its peak during the Mauryan period.
(Note: “Magadha” was the name of the kingdom, whereas “Maurya” was the name of the dynasty.)
Extent of the Empire
The Mauryan Empire extended westward up to present-day Afghanistan and eastward up to Bangladesh. In the north, it stretched from Kashmir, and in the south up to the Kaveri River.
Ashoka’s inscriptions were found in Kandahar (Afghanistan), Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra (Pakistan). According to Kalhana’s Rajatarangini, Ashoka built the city of Srinagar in Kashmir.
Inscriptions of Ashoka were also discovered in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh — at Erragudi and Rajulamandagiri villages (Kurnool district). Except for Tamil Nadu and Kerala, the entire Indian subcontinent came under Mauryan rule.
Ashoka’s 2nd and 13th rock edicts mention the Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras (Kerala-putras), the border kingdoms ruling Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
Sources for Mauryan History
To study Mauryan history, scholars rely on several sources — foreign literature, indigenous literature, and Ashokan inscriptions being the most important.
Foreign Literature
Greek, Roman, Sri Lankan, Tibetan, and Chinese texts provide valuable information.
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Nearchus (general of Alexander) described Indian society. He noted that Indian law books (Dharmashastras) were not written but preserved in memory. Hence, Indian law books are called Smritis (e.g., Yajnavalkya Smriti, Manusmriti).
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Megasthenes wrote Indica (c. 300 BCE) in Greek, describing Mauryan society, army, village administration, and urban governance. He was sent as ambassador by Seleucus Nikator (a Greek ruler of Syria) to the court of Chandragupta Maurya.
⚠️ However, Indica also has some controversial statements:
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Claimed India had no slavery, but slavery is mentioned in Kautilya’s Arthashastra and Ashokan edicts.
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Said Indian society had seven castes but omitted merchants, whereas India followed the fourfold Varna system.
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Claimed Indians did not practice money-lending, but Vedic texts mention it.
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Claimed India had no famines, but Ashoka’s inscriptions and Jain texts mention severe famines.
(Note: The original Indica is lost; present knowledge comes from later Greek historians.)
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Strabo (Geography, 1st century BCE–1st CE): Mentioned Chandragupta Maurya married Helena, daughter of Seleucus Nikator.
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Justin (An Epitome, 2nd CE): Described how “Sandrakottos” (Greek name for Chandragupta) conquered northwest India and defeated Alexander’s governors.
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Arrian (Indica, 2nd CE): Mentioned the vast army of the Nandas.
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Pliny the Elder (Natural History, 1st CE): Gave figures of Mauryan army — 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, 9,000 elephants, and 8,000 chariots.
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Sri Lankan Pali texts like Mahavamsa, Dipavamsa, Culavamsa record that Ashoka’s son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra introduced Buddhism to Sri Lanka. They also note Ashoka killed his 99 brothers to gain the throne.
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Chinese pilgrims:
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Faxian (5th CE) praised Mauryan monuments.
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Xuanzang (7th CE, Si-Yu-Ki) wrote Ashoka accepted Buddhism under the influence of a young monk named Nigrodha (Mahavamsa calls him by that name).
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Tibetan Buddhist text Divyavadana presents Ashoka as the central figure.
Indigenous Literature
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Kautilya’s Arthashastra (4th BCE): A political treatise in Sanskrit on administration, economy, and warfare. Kautilya (also called Chanakya/Vishnugupta) was advisor to Chandragupta Maurya.
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Divided into 15 chapters (Adhikarana), covering duties of the king, ministers, army, justice, salaries, foreign policy, calamities, war, and governance.
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Highest salary: 48,000 karshapanas to the commander-in-chief.
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Mentions the seven limbs of the state: King, Minister, Army, Fort, Treasury, Territory, Ally.
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Vishakhadatta’s Mudrarakshasa (5th CE): A play describing how Chandragupta, guided by Chanakya, defeated the Nandas and established the Mauryan empire.
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Harshacharita by Banabhatta (7th CE): Mentions the assassination of the last Mauryan king Brihadratha by his general Pushyamitra Shunga.
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Kalhana’s Rajatarangini (12th CE): States that Ashoka founded Srinagar and was succeeded by his Shaivite son Jalauka.
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Puranas: Describe Mauryas as Shudras or of low/asura origin, possibly due to their patronage of non-Vedic faiths.
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Jain texts: Parishishtaparvan says Chandragupta adopted Sallekhana (ritual fasting to death) at Shravanabelagola.
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Buddhist Jatakas: Provide insight into the social and economic conditions of the Mauryan era.
Ashokan Inscriptions
Ashoka issued his orders as edicts, carved on rocks, pillars, and caves — crucial sources for Mauryan history.
So far, 181 inscriptions have been found across 47 sites. They are in 3 languages (Prakrit, Greek, Aramaic) and 4 scripts (Brahmi, Kharosthi, Greek, Aramaic).
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James Prinsep (1837) first deciphered Brahmi script.
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Kharosthi script was read by Norris.
Ashoka is usually referred to as “Devanampriya” (Beloved of the Gods) and “Priyadarshi” (He who looks with affection). Only at Maski, Nittur, Udegolam (Karnataka), and Gujarra (Madhya Pradesh) do inscriptions mention his actual name “Ashoka Maharaja”.
Types of Edicts
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Rock Edicts
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Example: Bhabru Edict (West Bengal) — Ashoka declares his faith in Buddhism (Buddham Sharanam Gachhami).
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Fourteen Major Rock Edicts found at Erragudi (AP), Sopara (Maharashtra), Girnar (Gujarat), Kalsi (Uttarakhand), Dhauli & Jaugada (Odisha), Mansehra & Shahbazgarhi (Pakistan).
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Content includes:
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Ban on animal sacrifice (1st).
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Welfare measures (roads, wells, plantations) (2nd).
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Respect for Brahmanas and Shramanas (3rd).
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Rejection of war (Dhamma Ghosha instead of Bheri Ghosha) (4th).
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Kindness to slaves and prisoners (5th).
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All people are like his children (6th).
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Religious tolerance (7th, 12th).
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Adoption of Dhamma Yatras (pilgrimages of righteousness) instead of pleasure tours (8th).
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Condemnation of unnecessary rituals (9th).
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Definition of Dhamma (10th, 11th).
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13th Edict: Mentions the Kalinga war, his remorse, and diplomatic relations with five Hellenistic kings — Antiochus II (Syria), Ptolemy II (Egypt), Alexander (Epirus), Antigonus (Macedonia), Magas (Cyrene/Libya).
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14th: Ordered engraving of edicts on rocks.
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Pillar Edicts
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Tall polished stone pillars inscribed with edicts.
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Found at Rampurva, Lauriya Nandangarh, Lauriya Araraj (Bihar), Kaushambi (UP), Lumbini (Nepal), Delhi-Topra, Delhi-Meerut.
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The Lumbini pillar inscription states Ashoka reduced taxes for the people of Buddha’s birthplace.
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Later rulers (Samudragupta, Jahangir) added inscriptions on Ashokan pillars.
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Cave Edicts
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Found at Barabar Hills (near Gaya, Bihar).
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Ashoka donated rock-cut caves to the Ajivikas sect.
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Four caves: Sudama, Lomas Rishi, Karna Chaupar, Gopika.
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These are considered the earliest rock-cut caves in India.
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