Ancient India was a fertile ground for spiritual and philosophical thought. Around the 6th century BCE, several non-Vedic religious and philosophical movements emerged that challenged ritualistic traditions and explored alternative paths to understanding life, morality, and liberation. Among these were Ajivika, Charvaka, Buddhism, Jainism, and the six classical philosophies (Shaddarshanas).
While Buddhism and Jainism emphasized non-violence, self-discipline, and liberation from worldly attachments, Ajivika focused on the doctrine of destiny, and Charvaka promoted materialism and skepticism. The Shaddarshanas, arising from debates between Vedic and non-Vedic thinkers, offered structured approaches to ethics, knowledge, and the ultimate purpose of life.
Studying these traditions highlights the rich intellectual and spiritual heritage of India and shows how these movements shaped the moral, philosophical, and social fabric of the time.
Ajivika
Ajivika was one of the non-Vedic movements that emerged around the 6th century BCE. Its founder was Makkaligosa Putt, a contemporary of Mahavira, with whom he lived for six years before differences led them to part ways.
Ajivikas promoted the doctrine of Niyati (destiny), believing that all events in life are predetermined. The movement gradually disappeared after the Mauryan period (2nd century BCE).
Charvaka / Lokayata
Charvaka philosophy, founded by Ajita Kesakambali, was also a 6th-century BCE non-Vedic movement. It emphasized materialism and skepticism, rejecting concepts like God, rebirth, karma, heaven, and hell. Charvaka thought focused solely on the observable world and advocated enjoying life in the present.
Shaddarshanas (Six Philosophies)
Ancient Indian debates between Vedic and non-Vedic thinkers led to the emergence of six classical philosophies known as Shaddarshanas:
| Philosophy | Founder | Focus / Key Idea |
|---|---|---|
| Samkhya | Kapila | Non-theistic; dualism of Purusha (soul) and Prakriti (matter) |
| Yoga | Patanjali | Liberation through the Eightfold Path of Yoga: Yama, Niyama, Asanas, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyana, Samadhi |
| Vaisheshika | Kanada | Atomistic theory; analysis of reality through substances and qualities |
| Nyaya | Gautama | Logic and epistemology; proper reasoning leads to knowledge |
| Purva Mimamsa | Jaimini | Focused on Vedic rituals and authority of scriptures |
| Uttara Mimamsa / Vedanta | Badarayana | Wrote Brahma Sutras; emphasizes ultimate reality (Brahman) and liberation |
Buddhism and Jainism
Buddhism, founded by Gautama Buddha, and Jainism, led by Mahavira, are both non-Vedic movements emphasizing ethical living, non-violence, and liberation.
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Buddhism advocates the Eightfold Path, focusing on right understanding, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration.
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Jainism emphasizes the Five Vows (Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya, Aparigraha, Brahmacharya) and the Three Jewels (Right Faith, Right Knowledge, Right Conduct).
Both religions challenged ritualism, caste-based discrimination, and animal sacrifices, promoting moral discipline and spiritual development accessible to all. Jainism is older than Buddhism, with Mahavira preceding Buddha by roughly 200 years, and continues to thrive primarily in India.