Aryans and Vedic Civilization: Homeland, Society, Economy, Politics & Religion (Part-2)

The Homeland of the Aryans

Among historians, there is no consensus about the homeland of the Aryans, who built a great civilization in India. Their literature makes no mention of their original homeland. Some scholars argue that the Aryans were indigenous, while others believe they were foreigners. Let us examine some of these opinions.

Scholars like Avinash Chandradas, Dr. Sampurnanand, Ganganath Jha, and D.S. Trivedi argued that the Aryans were indigenous and that the region of Sapta-Sindhu was their homeland. Sapta-Sindhu refers to the land of seven rivers, primarily the Saraswati and Indus valley regions. These seven rivers can be listed as follows:

Note: The last five are tributaries of the Indus River.

• Dayananda Saraswati opined that the Aryans migrated from Tibet to India.

• Bal Gangadhar Tilak believed that the Aryans came from the Arctic region (North Pole) and wrote a book titled The Arctic Home in the Vedas.

• Scholars like MacDonald and Dr. Penk believed the Aryans were from the Germany–Austria region.

• Max Müller, a German Indologist, proposed that the Aryans migrated from Central Asia to India and settled in the Sapta-Sindhu region around 1500 BCE. The Boghazkoi inscription, dated to 1400 BCE in cuneiform, indirectly supports this theory. It records a treaty between the Hittite and Mitanni Aryan tribes, mentioning Aryan deities Indra, Varuna, Mitra, and Nasatya. At present, Max Müller’s view is the most widely accepted among scholars.

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Indology

The science that studies India is called Indology. It examines Indian history, culture, and people. European scholars developed this discipline in the 18th century.

Famous Indologists include:

• William Jones: An English Indologist who founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal in Calcutta in 1784. He translated Kalidasa’s Abhijnanasakuntalam into English.

• Charles Wilkins: A British Indologist who translated the Bhagavad Gita into English. William Jones and Charles Wilkins are known as the Fathers of Indology.

• Max Müller: A German Indologist who translated the Rigveda into English.

• A.L. Basham: Professor at Canberra University, Australia, and author of The Wonder That Was India, a book on ancient Indian history and culture.

For convenience, Aryan civilization is divided into two phases:

1. Early Vedic Period (1500–1000 BCE): Known as the Rigvedic Age, because the Rigveda is the only source for this period.

2. Later Vedic Period (1000–600 BCE): Known as the Later Vedic Age.

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Geographical Knowledge of the Aryans

Rigvedic Period

During the Rigvedic period, the Aryans were confined to the Sapta-Sindhu region. Their geographical knowledge extended only up to the Yamuna in the east and the Aravalli region in the south. Though the term samudra appears in the Rigveda, it referred only to river confluences, not the sea. The Ganga is mentioned, but the Aryans had no actual knowledge of it at that time; those verses are considered later interpolations.

Later Vedic Period

By 1000 BCE, the Aryans migrated from the Sapta-Sindhu region to the Gangetic plains. The Shatapatha Brahmana mentions Vaideha Madhava, a tribal chief, migrating from the Saraswati region to settle on the banks of the Sadānira (a tributary of the Ganga, identified with the Gandak).

The Aitareya Brahmana also provides information about southern seas and tribes, showing that Later Vedic Aryans had knowledge of all parts of India.

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Economic System

Rigvedic Period

The economy was primarily pastoral.

• The Rigveda mentions the horse 215 times and the cow 176 times.

• Society, economy, politics, and religion revolved around the cow. Kings were called Gopa or Gopati, the wealthy were called Gomat, wars were termed Gavisti, and guests were called Goghna.

• Agriculture was limited. The only grain mentioned was Yava (barley and wheat).

• Ploughs (Sira or Langala) were used, ploughed land was called Sita, and irrigation channels were called Kulya.

Main industries in Early Vedic Period:

• Pottery (potters called Kulara/Kularik).

• Weaving (weavers called Vaya/Kolika, mainly women).

• Metalwork (copper and bronze, called Ayas; iron was not yet known).

• Carpentry (Takshan).

• Ornament making (gold and silver).

Trade was minimal, as is common in pastoral societies. Transactions used Suvarna Nishka, probably a fixed-weight gold ornament, since no coins have been found from this era.

Later Vedic Period

After 1000 BCE, the economy shifted from pastoralism to agriculture, supported by fertile Gangetic lands and iron technology (Shyama Ayas/Krishna Ayas = iron). Rice (Vrihi), pulses, and sugarcane were cultivated.

Five types of land are mentioned:

1. Kshetra – fertile land

2. Khila – barren land

3. Apratihata – forest land

4. Vasti – habitable land

5. Gopathasara – pasture land

Crafts and industries expanded, and the first cities like Hastinapura, Kaushambi, and Ahichhatra emerged in the Gangetic plains.

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Social System

Rigvedic Period

According to R.S. Sharma, society was tribal and egalitarian.

• Patriarchal families (Kulapa = family head).

• No caste system yet; instead, three social groups existed:

  1. Priests (conducted rituals)

  2. Warriors (fought wars)

  3. Commoners (pastoralists, farmers)

Social mobility existed, with freedom for inter-dining and intermarriage (Anuloma and Pratiloma marriages allowed). Women enjoyed high status, education, and freedom. The Rigveda mentions 20 women scholars, including Ghosha, Lopamudra, and Apala.

Marriage customs included Niyoga (widow marrying her husband’s brother). Polygamy and polyandry were also known.

Later Vedic Period

Society became caste-based (varna system) and hierarchical: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras.

• Social mobility restricted.

• Anuloma marriages allowed, Pratiloma marriages prohibited.

• Women lost freedom and status; widow remarriage was banned. Child marriage and Sati became prevalent.

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Eight Types of Marriages in Vedic Literature

1. Brahma – ideal, with parental consent.

2. Daiva – giving daughter to a priest as sacrificial fee.

3. Arsha – giving daughter in exchange for cattle.

4. Prajapatya – marriage without dowry or bride-price.

5. Gandharva – love marriage without rituals.

6. Asura – marriage by purchase.

7. Rakshasa – marriage by abduction.

8. Paishacha – lowest form, by force.

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Four Ashramas (Stages of Life)

1. Brahmacharya – student life.

2. Grihastha – married household life.

3. Vanaprastha – hermit stage.

4. Sannyasa – renunciation, spiritual liberation.

The Chandogya Upanishad mentions only the first three; the Jabala Upanishad includes all four.

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Four Purusharthas (Aims of Life)

1. Dharma – righteousness

2. Artha – wealth

3. Kama – desires

4. Moksha – liberation

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Political System

Rigvedic Period

A tribal polity existed. Each tribe had a chief (Rajan), elected by the people, not an absolute ruler. Four assemblies existed:

1. Sabha – council of elders (included women).

2. Samiti – general assembly of people.

3. Vidatha – dealt with disputes (women included).

4. Gana – little information available.

Officials under the king: Purohita (priest), Senapati (commander), Prajapati (pastures officer), Gramani (village head), Spasa (spy), and Jivagribha (police).

Revenue sources: war booty and voluntary tribute (Bali).

Wars: Mainly for cows (Gavisti). The most famous was the Battle of Ten Kings (Dasarajna) on the banks of the Ravi (Parushni), where Bharata king Sudas defeated a confederacy of ten tribes led by Purukutsa of the Purus. Priests Vasishtha (for Sudas) and Vishwamitra (for Purukutsa) played key roles.

Later Vedic Period

The polity transformed into monarchical kingdoms (Janapadas) in the Gangetic plains. Important kingdoms:

• Magadha (Brihadratha dynasty)

• Kashi (ruled by philosopher Ajatashatru)

• Kuru (capital: Hastinapura)

• Videha (capital: Mithila, ruled by philosopher-king Janaka)

• Panchala (ruled by philosopher Pravahana Jaivali)

• Kosala (capital: Ayodhya, ruled by the Ikshvaku dynasty)

The king (Chakravarti) became hereditary and autocratic. Taxes (Bhaga = share of produce) were introduced, the first recorded tax in India. Administration was aided by 12 officials called Dvadasha Ratnins.

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Religion

Rigvedic Period

Religion centered on nature worship. 33 deities were mostly natural forces personified.

Main Gods:

• Indra (war, rain, atmosphere) – most hymns dedicated.

• Agni (fire, mediator between gods and men).

• Varuna (moral order, cosmic law).

• Maruts (storm gods).

• Ashvins (healing deities).

• Soma (sacred drink).

Main Goddesses:

• Ushas (dawn), Aditi (mother earth), Aranyani (forest goddess), Savitri (light).

Worship involved prayers and offerings, especially Soma juice. Focus was on worldly gains, not salvation.

Later Vedic Period

Religion evolved: natural gods gave way to Trinity – Prajapati/Brahma (creator), Vishnu (preserver), Rudra (destroyer).

• Complex and costly rituals (yajnas) gained importance.

• Philosophical concepts like soul (Atman), supreme soul (Paramatman), rebirth, and liberation (Moksha) emerged.

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Differences between Indus Civilization and Vedic Civilization

1. Origin: Indus – indigenous Dravidian; Vedic – Aryan (foreign origin).

2. Sources: Indus – archaeological excavations; Vedic – literary (Vedas).

3. Urban vs. Rural: Indus – urban; Vedic – rural (village-based).

4. Society: Indus – class divisions; Vedic – later developed caste system.

5. Women: High status in Indus; declined in Vedic.

6. Economy: Indus – agriculture-based, trade, crafts; Vedic – pastoral (early), agriculture (later).

7. Metals: Indus – copper, bronze; Vedic – iron introduced.

8. Religion: Indus – mother goddess, Pashupati, animals, nature; Vedic – nature gods, later Trinity. No idol worship in Vedic period.

Conclusion: Despite differences, both Indus and Vedic civilizations together laid the foundation of Indian culture and heritage.