Aryan / Vedic Civilization (1500 BCE – 600 BCE)
Vedic Civilization
After the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization, the second major civilization of India was the Vedic Civilization, developed by the Aryans of the Nordic race. The term Nordic refers to race, whereas Aryan refers to language. Since they spoke the Aryan language, they were called Aryans.
This civilization is studied mainly through Vedic literature composed by the Aryans, hence it is called the Vedic Civilization. For the first time in Indian history, we can study a civilization through written texts. With the arrival of the Aryans, the historic age in India began. Archaeologists also call this the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) Culture, named after the distinctive pottery used by the Aryans.
Vedic Literature
The greatest contribution of the Aryans was their Vedic literature, written in Sanskrit, consisting of religious and philosophical works. Initially preserved orally, these texts were later written down during the Gupta period. The Vedas eventually became the sacred scriptures of Hinduism.
Vedic literature has 8 divisions:
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Vedas
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Brahmanas
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Aranyakas
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Upanishads
(Together these four are called Shruti literature, considered divine revelations and the most sacred.)
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Vedangas
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Puranas
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Upavedas
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Epics (Itihasas)
(These four are called Smriti literature, written by sages.)
The Four Vedas
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Rigveda – The oldest Veda with 1,028 hymns, mostly prayers to various deities. The Purusha Sukta in the 10th Mandala mentions the origin of the Varna system. The famous Gayatri Mantra belongs here.
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Yajurveda – Deals with rituals and sacrifices. It has two divisions:
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Shukla Yajurveda (White, in verse)
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Krishna Yajurveda (Black, in prose)
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Samaveda – The Veda of music. It adapts Rigvedic hymns into musical chants. It adds little new historical information.
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Atharvaveda – Contains 711 hymns, divided into 20 sections. Includes spells to cure diseases and ward off evil spirits. It reflects the superstitious practices of the Aryans. Some scholars believe it was composed by non-Aryans.
Brahmanas
These are prose texts that explain the meaning of the Vedas and rituals. Seven Brahmanas are associated with the four Vedas.
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Aitareya and Kausitaki Brahmana – Rigveda
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Shatapatha Brahmana – Shukla Yajurveda (mentions usury/interest-based trade for the first time)
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Taittiriya Brahmana – Krishna Yajurveda
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Tandya Mahabrahmana and Jaiminiya Brahmana – Samaveda
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Gopatha Brahmana – Atharvaveda
Aranyakas
Texts composed by sages living in forests (Aranyas). They focus on meditation and philosophy.
Upanishads
The philosophical conclusions of the Vedas, also called Vedanta. There are 108 Upanishads.
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Chandogya Upanishad – First to mention the Ashrama system.
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Brihadaranyaka Upanishad – Dialogue between Yajnavalkya and his wives.
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Mundaka Upanishad – Source of “Satyameva Jayate.”
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Jabala Upanishad – Mentions four Ashramas (stages of life).
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Shvetashvatara Upanishad – First to promote Bhakti (devotion) instead of rituals.
Upanishads emphasize soul, rebirth, karma, moksha, and reject ritual sacrifices.
Vedangas
The six auxiliaries of the Vedas, essential for Vedic study:
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Shiksha – Phonetics
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Nirukta – Etymology
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Chhandas – Metrics
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Vyakarana – Grammar
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Jyotisha – Astrology
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Kalpa – Rituals
Kalpa Sutras include:
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Grihya Sutras – Domestic rituals (16 Samskaras from conception to death)
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Shrauta Sutras – Royal rituals like Ashvamedha, Rajasuya, Vajapeya
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Sulva Sutras – Construction of fire altars, containing early geometry
Puranas
Contain mythological stories as well as genealogies of kings, from King Parikshit to the Guptas. Among the 18 Puranas, the Vayu, Vishnu, Markandeya, Matsya, and Bhagavata Puranas are most important.
Upavedas
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Ayurveda – Medicine (Rigveda)
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Dhanurveda – Warfare (Yajurveda)
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Gandharva Veda – Music (Samaveda)
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Shilpa Veda – Art & Architecture (Atharvaveda)
Epics (Itihasas)
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Ramayana – Written by Valmiki, known as the Adi Kavya. 24,000 verses, 7 Kandas.
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Mahabharata – Written by Vyasa. 100,000 verses, 18 Parvas. Contains the Bhagavad Gita.