The Indus–Harappan Civilization was the earliest urban civilization of India and one of the most ancient in the world. It flourished between 2500 BCE and 1750 BCE across the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent. Though remains were first noticed in 1826, the real significance of this civilization was revealed through the excavations at Harappa (1921) and Mohenjo-daro (1922).
This civilization is known for its remarkable achievements in town planning, technology, trade, social organization, religious practices, and art. It is also called the Harappan Civilization (after the first discovered site) and the Bronze Age Civilization (due to the extensive use of bronze tools).
Extent and Sites
The Harappan Civilization extended over a vast area covering Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan (now in Pakistan), Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, and western Uttar Pradesh. The total area is estimated at around 12,99,600 sq. km, making it larger than contemporary civilizations like those of Mesopotamia and Egypt.
Some of the major sites include:
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Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan) – First site discovered.
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Mohenjo-daro (Sindh, Pakistan) – Known for advanced town planning and Great Bath.
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Lothal (Gujarat) – Famous for dockyard and bead-making industry.
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Kalibangan (Rajasthan) – Known for fire altars and ploughed fields.
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Dholavira (Gujarat) – Noted for water reservoirs and unique town planning.
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Rakhigarhi (Haryana) – One of the largest Harappan sites in India.
Town Planning
One of the most striking features of the Harappan Civilization was its scientific urban planning. The cities were laid out in a grid system, with streets cutting each other at right angles.
Main features:
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Division of the city: Each city was divided into the citadel (fortified area on a raised platform) and the lower town where common people lived.
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Drainage system: An advanced underground drainage system with covered drains and soak pits. This reflects a concern for sanitation.
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The Great Bath (Mohenjo-daro): A massive structure used for ritual bathing, possibly linked to religious practices.
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Granaries: Huge granaries have been found at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, indicating organized storage of food grains.
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Standardized bricks: Both baked and sun-dried bricks of uniform ratio (1:2:4) were used.
Political Life
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No conclusive evidence of kings or monarchy has been found.
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A centralized authority is suggested by uniformity in weights, measures, bricks, and town planning.
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It may have been governed by a priestly class, merchant elite, or council of elders rather than powerful kings like in Mesopotamia or Egypt.
Economic Life
Agriculture
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Agriculture was the main occupation.
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Crops: Wheat, barley, peas, sesame, mustard, cotton (first in the world to grow cotton).
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Evidence of irrigation through canals and wells.
Domestication of Animals
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Cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, pigs, camels, and elephants were domesticated.
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Horses were not in regular use (no clear evidence).
Trade and Commerce
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Both internal and external trade flourished.
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Items like beads, ivory, shells, cotton textiles were exported.
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Imports included tin, copper, precious stones from Mesopotamia, Afghanistan, and Oman.
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Lothal dockyard indicates overseas trade.
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Standard weights and measures (binary system) ensured regulated trade.
Social Life
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Evidence suggests a class-based society (rulers, priests, merchants, craftsmen, laborers).
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Women may have enjoyed a respectable position (mother goddess worship).
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Dress: Men wore a garment over the lower body and an upper shawl; women wore skirts and ornaments.
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Ornaments were common for both men and women – necklaces, bangles, beads (gold, silver, semi-precious stones).
Religion
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Polytheistic in nature.
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Worship of Mother Goddess (fertility cult).
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Worship of a Proto-Shiva (Pashupati seal) associated with animals.
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Worship of trees (pipul/peepal tree) and animals (bull).
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No evidence of temples; worship was likely done in homes or open spaces.
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Fire altars found at Kalibangan.
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Belief in life after death – burial practices and grave goods.
Arts and Crafts
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Harappans were skilled craftsmen.
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Pottery: Both plain and painted pottery (red ware with black designs).
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Seals: Square steatite seals with animal motifs (unicorn, bull, elephant). Used for trade and possibly religious symbols.
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Sculptures:
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Bronze dancing girl (Mohenjo-daro).
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Bearded priest (Harappa).
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Jewelry: Gold, silver, beads.
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Terracotta figurines: Mother goddess, animals, toys.
Script
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Harappans used a pictographic script (around 400 symbols).
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Written on seals, pottery, and copper tablets.
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Script remains undeciphered till today.
Decline of the Harappan Civilization
The Harappan Civilization began to decline around 1750 BCE. Several theories have been suggested:
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Climatic changes and floods.
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Decline in trade with Mesopotamia.
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Overuse of land and deforestation.
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Invasion by Aryans (theory by Mortimer Wheeler, now less accepted).
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Gradual internal decline due to economic and social factors.
Conclusion
The Harappan Civilization was one of the most advanced urban cultures of the ancient world. With its remarkable achievements in town planning, agriculture, trade, art, and religion, it laid the foundations of Indian civilization. Even though the civilization declined, many of its traditions—such as symbols, religious practices, and crafts—continued in later Indian cultures.